Simon Schama in his "Rough Crossings: Britain, the Slaves and the American Revolution" (BBC, 2006) tells us many things that are new - to me at least. I knew that escaped slaves fought for the crown, but I didn't know that there were tens of thousands of them - encouraged by the promise of freedom (promises that were not kept in all cases). He recounts the story of Granville Sharp, a minor civil servant who mugged up on law sufficently to take on the Lord Chief Justice of England and demonstrate that liberty for everyone was enshrined in the Laws of England so that any slave who escaped to England was legally free. He outlines the roles of Thomas Clarkson, Olaudab Equiano and Henry Thornton in the Abolitionist Movement that persuaded William Wilberforce to try, try and try again to get Parliament to pass the bill outlawing trade in slaves, the bicentenary of which is being commemorated this year. The most graphic part of Schama's book is the story of Thomas Clarkson's young naval officer brother John leading a fleet carrying freed slaves (and some Europeans) across the Atlantic to a new life in Sierra Leone, with John Clarkson as their first Governor.
John Wesley, the Founding Father of Methodism, merits only a brief mention. After all, John and his brother Charles were just supporters not key members of the abolitionist movement - though John's deathbed letter must have encouraged Wilberforce to keep going for another 16 years till his bill was passed. The Wesleys never forgot that they had seen the brutalities of slavery as young missionaries in America.back in 1736. Like Schama today, they noted later on the hypocrisy of the American colonists in proclaiming the inalienble right of liberty for all - except slaves.
The nuanced outlook of the Wesleys to the American Revolution is the subject of a chapter in a new biography of Charles Wesley, that I review in the "extended entry" that follows.
Charles Wesley, a Biography: Gary Best, Epworth £19.99
From reading this book – and the privilege of meeting the author recently – I have learned a lot about early Methodism. We may know that Methodism began in the "holy clubs" in Oxford, that John Wesley (1703-1791) made an unsuccessful missionary tour of America and that it was only after his "heart was strangely warmed" in 1738 that his evangelical zeal became effective. But we may not know much about the role of Charles Wesley, the tercentenary of whose birth we celebrate this year, apart from writing the hymns that still mean so much to us today. And I suspect few of us know much about their friend George Whitefield. This book seeks to show that Charles and George were just as important as John as preachers and pastors. It also graphically describes what all three suffered for the cause – assaults by mobs and the strain of travelling up and down the country on horseback, year in year out, on poor or nonexistent roads. It also dissects the rows the three had with each other and with their associates and how the movement was so nearly derailed in the 1760s by wild enthusiasms among their converts. And throughout his life, Charles Wesley was dogged by ill health such as that which forced him to leave John behind in their ill-fated "American Adventure".
The about to retire head of Kingswood (a Methodist independent boarding school) has written an intriguing biography, the first major study of the younger brother of John Wesley (1703-1791) for a century and a half (Thomas Jackson's "Life" in 1841). He feels very strongly that Charles' contribution to the development of Methodism has been grossly underestimated. The title Gary Best first chose was "A Man Made for Friendship", contrasting Charles Wesley's gift with John's readiness to be friendly only with those who agreed with him. In fact it is apparent that Gary Best does not like John Wesley very much, being particularly scathing about his skills in self-promotion. For example, in his introduction he claims "John Wesley had the advantage of living far longer and so was able to rewrite the history of Methodism and so diminish Whitefield's role" as well as that of Charles.
It is interesting to compare this work with Henry Rack's "Reasonable Enthusiast: John Wesley and the Rise of Methodism" (Epworth, 1989). Rack does paint a "warts and all" portrait but adheres to the traditional view of John Wesley as the founder and shaper of Methodism. Best by contrast emphasises that Whitefield was the first to call his societies "Methodist", the first to use lay preachers, a more effective preacher than either of the brothers and a major force in Methodism until his death in 1770. Where he (and a number of other Church of England clerical supporters) diverged from the Wesleys was, of course, over predestination. It seems strange that Whitefield could be content with the belief that all his preaching could do was identify those in his congregations that were predestined by God to be saved, while the Wesley's Arminianism gave their preaching the incentive of the conviction that all can be saved.
Of course, the subject of the book is Charles Wesley. Unlike his brother, he kept a journal only intermittently and usually preached extempore – so few written records (apart from many letters). But the testimony of hearers convinces Best that his preaching was more powerful and effective than John's. A Joseph Williams heard him in Bristol: "I found him standing on a table, in an erect posture, with his hands and eyes lifted up to heaven in prayer, surrounded with, I guess, more than a thousand people; some few of them persons of fashion, both men and women, but most of them of the lower rank of mankind … He prayed with uncommon fervency, fluency, and a variety of proper expression. He then preached about an hour … in such manner as I have seldom, if ever, heard any minister preach … to convince his hearers that … God is willing to be reconciled to all, even the worst of sinners". Eventually ill health forced him to travel much less. Then he concentrated on the vital work of pastoring the growing societies in London and Bristol. Another crucial role was preventing the separation of Methodism from the Established Church and recruiting Church of England clergy to the cause. Indeed by restraining John from ordaining some of his lay preachers in 1760 "he delayed a break with the Church of England … for the next 20 years".
In his later years the ailing Charles lived in London, encouraging his musically gifted sons and accordingly mixing with the aristocracy. But he did not neglect his ministry – visiting prisons (we can hardly imagine how wretched jail conditions were in those days), helping the poor, preaching and turning down opportunities for clerical advancement and a legacy because he would not leave his work among the Methodists, saying: "If you are ashamed of poverty you are ashamed of your Master."
On the broader political plane, in their early days the brothers had to defend themselves against the charge of Jacobinism, that is support of the Catholic Pretender to the throne. Their vigorous support for King George thus gave them a position at the start of the American War of Independence. But their principles caused them trouble with both sides. Though not pacifists, they were against violent warfare if at all possible. They had some sympathy with the claims of the colonists for freedom but denounced their hypocrisy in denying that freedom for slaves (among whom their were many Methodist converts). Way back in 1736 both Charles and John had seen the horrors of slavery at first hand. In 1774, John Wesley published his "Thoughts upon Slavery". He denied that slavery had any right to exist: "Not withstanding ten thousand laws, right is right and wrong is wrong". And, as is well known, nearly two decades later his deathbed letter encouraged William Wilberforce to keep going with his bill to abolish the slave trade – which, as we commemorate this year was not enacted for another 16 years.
The previous paragraph shows how difficult it is to write about Charles Wesley without also writing about John. Indeed Henry Rack gave one of his chapters the title "Brothers in Love". They had many arguments but then almost always stood together. Best affirms that Charles provided "the warmth of character which kept many loyal to his more autocratic and severe brother". I think it must be said that Best is unduly harsh on John Wesley. He had the determination to keep the Methodists together, introducing rules, clear statements of doctrine and membership tickets. Both brothers longed to stay within the Church. But John was perhaps the more realistic in seeing that Charles hope of mass recruitment of clergy was in vain and that separation was in the end inevitable. Both believed passionately in free will, that the God's offer of salvation was for all to accept or reject, but Charles sometimes allowed his gift for friendship with Calvinist believers in predestination to cloud his judgement.
We owe Gary Best a debt of gratitude for reminding us that there was so much more to Charles Wesley than his hymns. He wrote thousands and many other of his communications were in verse, some pretty appalling verse. But now it is the hymns in our current Hymns and Psalms that we have – and neglect at our peril. Let's read (and sing) them afresh. They are written in plain language, with few words that are not easy to understand and they affirm the essential doctrines of our faith and so are the creed of the Methodist Church. Two points that resonate for me in so many of Charles Wesley's hymns:
First, salvation is for all, not just for the Elect. This is not just some archaic theological word game but a statement of vital importance in a world as divided as ever by wealth, class, race, colour and faith. Freedom, justice, worth, self-belief are for all!
Second, we worship One God. The Trinity cannot be divided in terms of job description (creator, saviour and enabler or whatever) or by setting one person against another (as in the surely heretical penal substitutionary theory of the atonement). The three "persons" (Father, Son and Holy Spirit) are not three Gods but how the one loving God reveals himself to us.
Thy sovereign grace to all extends,
Immense and unconfined;
From age to age it never ends;
It reaches all mankind. (H&P 46)
Endless scenes of wonder rise
From that mysterious tree,
Crucified before our eyes
Where we our Maker see;
Jesus, Lord, what hast thou done? (H&P 166)
He bids us eat and drink
Imperishable food;
What'er the Almighty can
To pardoned sinners give,
The fullness of our God made man
We here with Christ receive (H&P 614)
Forth in thy name, O Lord I go,
My daily labour to pursue (H&P 381)